THE BIRTH OF A SCIENCE >Sw?F&  
Before the eighteenth century, botany was merely a branch of medicine. Until then, mostly doctors and surgeons studied herbs. WQ:Y NmQ1p  
Attempts had been made by others to classify plant species into groups, but the breakthrough came with the work of Carl Linnaeus. Showing how plants were related was a complex and strange thing before Linnaeus developed his system. The idea to give each species two names was not new, but names were not truly fixed and accepted. g__s(  IJ  
Some scientists classified plants into herbs and trees, or according to the shape of the fruit, or whether they had flowers or not. But Linnaeus' idea of grouping plants in families was unique. In his system the identification of different species was based on the arrangement of the male and female organs in the flowers. As a result, fruits such as peaches and pears are in fact related, although they are different at first sight. c,)]! {c  
Linnaeus' system soon conquered the world. In 1759, Linnaeus' student, Daniel Solander, traveled to England to promote the new system. In London, Solander developed a lifelong friendship with Joseph Banks, who would later ask him to join his team of botanical explorers on the Endeavour in 1768. Hc|cA(9sh9  
Born into a life of privilege, Joseph Banks was the son of wealthy family. When his father died in 1761, Banks was only eighteen years old. Many young men in his position would lead a cosy life, but young Banks had an appetite for knowledge. Despite his wealth, he worked to make a career in science. He made a first journey to study wild plants in 1766. His next expedition was the great voyage with James Cook to Oceania. s]A8C^;c  
In 1768, the Royal Navy appointed James Cook as the commander of the Endeavour to take members of the Royal Society on an expedition to Tahiti. xf7YIhL^*  
According to the instructions given to Captain Cook, the expedition had three goals. The primary goal was to study the passing of the planet Venus across the sun. This would give astronomers a change to calculate the distance between the earth and the sun. Secondly the purpose of the expedition was to record, classify and describe all plant and animal life observed during the trip. Thirdly, Captain Cook received secret instructions to search for an unknown southern continent. :p)^+AF"5  
As astronomy was one of the most important branches of science, it was the British government that paid for all the equipment and expenses for that of the expedition. ,|zzq@fk  
Since the government would not pay for such a new field of science as botany, Joseph Banks, at the age of 25, had to supply about 10,000 pounds of his own money to equip the expedition. g;[t1
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On their three-year voyage, Joseph Banks did not only study and describe new plants he found, but also looked out new economic species: plans that could be grown in England or other parts of the world to produce crops that could be sold. )ryPK"V  
Banks was the first to move crops from one continent to another on a large scale, helping to develop local economies with these new imports. Some plants that were spread over the globe in this way include cocoa, hemp and tea. _p9"MU&}  
The Endeavour, returned to England in 1771. The voyage had been a great success. Wonderful discoveries had been made of strange new lands, cultures, animals and plants. After that Captain Cook made two more voyages around the world, but Joseph Banks never undertook another. suWO:]FR  
From behind his desk, however, he was involved in enterprises such as the exploration of Africa and the settlement of Australia. GCw4sb4~w  
In 1778, Banks was elected president of the Royal Society, a position he held for 42 years. During these years Banks helped to develop the royal gardens at Kew into one of the greatest botanical gardens in the world. He accumulated a great deal of knowledge about plants and agriculture. In growing strawberries Banks went back to the abandoned practice of spreading straw under the fruit to reduce the necessary amount of watering. He also built a greenhouse to experiment with growing pineapples. It was Joseph Banks who made Kew a centre of scientific and economic research.

WILDLIFE AND GARDEN ROSES &e*@:5Z:k  
In his youth Charles Darwin enjoyed all the freedom to experiment and do whatever he liked. The study of physics, chemistry, and later botany, was his hobby. # SJJ@SM  
At the age of 22, Darwin was invited to join the scientific expedition on the Beagle. During its five-year voyage, the Beagle followed almost the same route as Cook's Endeavour sixty years earlier. $txF|Fj]^A  
Darwin's observations on the voyage let him to write his famous book On the Origin of Species. TOa6sB!H  
It was Darwin's visit on the beagle to the Galapagos Isles that gave him the key to his new theory. Darwin soon realized that the wildlife of the Galapagos Isles was very curious and deserved special attention. Most of the life forms could be found nowhere else. There were even difference between the species of the different islands; yet all showed a clear relationship with those of America, though separated from that continent by about 600 miles. :1bDkoK  
Darwin counted 225 flowering plants, of which he collected and brought home 193. Of these 100 were new species which are only found in the Galapagos islands. Altogether the group of island formed a little world within itself. ?X\.O-=4X  
Darwin first understood the development of different plant species from developments in bird species that he observed in Galapagos. He found 13 kinds of finches, related to each other in the structure of their beaks, tails, shape of body and colour of their feathers. The most curious fact was the differences in the size of the beaks. This could only be explained by the difference in habitat and source of food. The birds with broad beaks would eat hard seeds, while the birds with smaller beaks would eat soft seed or insects. Back home, in England, Darwin realised that differences in habitat could lead to different species in birds as well as in plants. He had found a key to explain the differences between species. J 48$l(l3  
During the 1840s and 1850s Gregor Mendel conducted his experiments with flowers and peas. Mendel's attraction to research was based on his love of nature. Although his experiments were designed to support the ideas concerning the influence of environment upon plants, he found that many characteristics were passed on from one generation to the next, without influence by the environment. 8s[1-l
 
His research gave birth to the science of genetics. ,BG UIu6  
As a result of Darwin and Mendel's research, scientists of the nineteenth century formed the belief that the influence of the environment was behind the development of new species. Still, both Darwin and Mendel observed that within species, different varieties could occur. L=HnVgBs  
Darwin studied many varieties of garden roses. It would take a next generation of scientists to bring the importance of the environment on species back in view. }ksp(.}G  
In 1922, Gote Turesson found evidence for the existence of stable varieties within species in nature. He showed that differences between plants of one species occurred as result of environmental conditions in their habitat. He made his discoveries by studying a wild plant found on the Swedish west coast. When growing on rocks, the plant grows to a bush, having broad leaves and large flowers. However, when growing on sand, the plant grows close to the ground, having narrow leaves and small flowers. If plants from one habitat were moved to the other type of habitat, they changed their appearance and adapted to the new environment. 61gyx6v  
The research by Darwin, Mendel and Turesson shows that both genetics and the environment are important to plants. For the improvement of crops Mendel's genetics were long considered the most important. However, Tursson's findings show that habitat, such as soil conditions, is of equal importance to the output of crops.

V: Excuse me, can you tell us something about the history of Kew Gardens?  _X=6M gU  
G: Botanical gardens have a long history in the UK, beginning with the foundation of the Oxford Botanical Garden in 1621. Kew Gardens was planted in the 16th century. International importance came under the guidance of Sir Joseph Banks. He changed Kew from a royal collection of strange plants to a serious scientific research centre. 7#
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V: So what is the purpose of Kew Gardens today? M: &%c3  
G: The motto forming the inspiration for Kew Gardens is simple but clear: all life depends on plants. The main purpose of Kew is to come to a better management of the earth's environment. We try to do that by increasing knowledge and understanding of plants. After all, they form the basis of life on earth. @B(E&  
V: How can Kew Gardens reach this goal? S}]B|Q  
G: Kew wants to achieve this by: developing a global collection of plants and show it to the public; undertaking worldwide research into botany; supporting the conservation of plants in the UK and overseas; and informing and educating the wider public about Kew Gardens and their work. BTG_c_?]e  
V: If I may ask, what is there to see at Kew Gardens? mV4gw'.;7  
G: Kew has many plants in glasshouses and more than 20 different specialized gardens, such as the Rock Garden, Rose Garden, Woodland Garden and the Winter Garden. bF+j%=  
V: I read that they also have a Grass Garden. What can be interesting about that? R>;&4Sjr  
G: The Grass Garden shows a great number of different grasses. In an economic sense, the grass family is one of the most important plant families. It provides most of our food, feeds our cattle and provides building materials such as bamboo and straw. Only three different bamboos are shown in the Grass Garden. More can be found in the Bamboo Garden. Over 120 species of bamboo planted there come from all over the world. .ns=jp  
V: Well, I'm afraid that's a bit boring for me. I think I'd have a look at the Rose Garden. "sY}@Q7  
G: Of course, the Rose Garden attracts most visitors. It has 54 rose beds, each containing a different variety of rose. The roses are all arranged by the colour of their flowers. Shades of red are closest to the Palm House, while the lighter-coloured roses, such as the white and yellow ones, are planted near the edge of the garden.

STUDYING PLANTS IN THE WILD X{6a  
The study of natural history is not something to be left to biologists. In fact, their capacity in terms of the time they can spend away from their offices is very limited. Even if all professors in universities and research institutes could devote all their time to the study of nature, their contribution, although important, would still be quite small. To the study of natural history the contribution of other people with an interest in nature has always been equally important.   ?<8c  
In many countries, groups of people who share an interest in nature have formed natural history clubs. They regularly get together to explore the environment near their hometown. Some people have a general interest in nature, while others try to become specialists. Therefore, large natural history societies usually have different groups to study and observe birds, plants, insects or other wildlife. `s Pk:cNz~  
Some clubs have a long history, and many started at schools with the help of a biology teacher. Natural history societies with a long history often have a good library and modern equipment to explore nature. They publish their own magazines, in which they report their observations and research. Even some nature clubs run by students aged between 12 and 25, are able to reach very high scientific standards. This is exactly why their contribution is so valuable. 734n1-F?I%  
While governments, universities and research institutes only have a limited budget to do fieldwork, people whose hobby it is to study botany can devote a great deal of money and time to it. T34Z#PFwe  
Botany is very suitable as a hobby. Besides a good Flora, very little special equipment is needed. The most important things are a magnifying glass (at least 8x), a short ruler, a pen and a notebook. A Flora is a special book to identify plants. The Flora of the British Isles, for example, is a book that describes all plants that are native to the British Isles. It is usually possible to find the name of a plant in about ten minutes, especially for people who are experienced at working with a Flora. AP1ZIc6  
To find the name of plant species it is often necessary to have a close look and count the male and female organs in the flowers. To see this clearly, a magnifying glass is essential. DxpJP,wY3  
Flowers are not always needed to identify the plant. Once the name has been found, it is important to make notes of the exact place where and the date when the plant was found. Plants grow in communities, and plant sociology is the branch of botany that studies this phenomenon. By making a careful analysis of the plant growth in a square metre, it is possible to find out what type of plant community occupies the land. Some plant communities are made up of very common plant species. Others may contain very special, endangered plant species. .c__T{<)[  
Knowing more about nature will help us realise which parts of our environment deserve our protection. ;)P=WS:=  
It is not necessary for you do live in the countryside to take an active interest in botany. Any environment, whether urban or rural, offers a variety of different habitats, in which plants can be studied. Nature often has to put up a fierce struggle to survive in the city. Still, every city contains natural habitats, in which wild plants have found their home. To study, describe and protect them makes and important contribution to science and an effort to care for the environment.

Part 1 khD)x0'b  
The FX 435 is an incredible new laptop at a reasonable price! This laptop is perhaps not the smallest or fastest computer around, but it is certainly the best deal. Priced at only 4,000 yuan, the FX 435 is the best on the market. It comes with a 14.1 inch screen and all you need for basic work and play. So if you are looking for a laptop that gives you the most computing power for your money, FX 435 is the best choice. o ayu*a.  
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Researchers at the Star Computers have spent years developing the perfect laptop for today's successful businessmen. Now they have the perfect tool for you － the new Star 5000 for modern leaders who make a difference in the world. Star 5000 is the choice of many of our most powerful companies. Bring Star 5000 to your next big meeting and watch the others look at you with respect and envy. They will know that you are a man of the future. Make the right choice. Choose Star 5000! 1\Pjz Lj  
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What's your colour, blue, green or red? How about silver with golden stars on it? The only limit is your imamgination. The new E-Brain from Diamond Computers has got teenagers hopping all over China! Forget old, boring black or gray computers that look like an ugly box. The E-Brain isn't just a computer; it's an expression of who you are. The computer is built with students in mind and comes at an affordable price and has all the basic software you need to do your homework. It also has a brand new music system that lets you enjoy the latest sounds in style. And best of all, the E-Brain looks cooler than anything else on the market. The only thing you have to think about is: what's your colour?

Part 2 >D}|'.&  
You need to think carefully before you buy an expensive product like a computer. Start by making a list of the features you need. What are you going to use the computer for? Once you have a better idea of what you want, you should shop around. Look at as many models as possible and compare not only prices but also what you get for your money. The price is important, but you should also consider the laptop's size and weight. Visit a store and try different computers. Do you like the keyboard? Does it have a good screen? Can you connect it to the computer equipment you already have? How long do the batteries last? These are all important questions. k.o8!aCm  
Ask the store about special offers and use the Internet to see if there are cheaper alternatives. It's possible to buy used laptops, but computers tend to get old fast. It's better to buy a new one, even if it seems more expensive. Finally, if you plan to use your laptop as your main computer, you should consider buying a separate keyboard and monitor. Most laptops have uncomfortable keyboards that may damage your hands if you have to do a lot of typing. A separate keyboard doesn't cost much and will be useful. If you will use the laptop a lot, you need a bigger and better monitor. You may also want to buy a separate mouse, too. Try different kinds and find out which mouse, keyboard and monitor you like best.

ADVERTISING jWi~Q o+  
Ads are found almost everywhere - they are broadcast on TV and over the radio, posted on the Internet and printed in newspapers and on posters in our cities. YZSQOLN{  
Advertising is a highly developed industry. The development of radio, television and other media has gone hand in hand with the development of advertising. =s]2?m  
People react to advertisements in different ways. Some people find ads useful and entertaining; others think that they are annoying. Defenders of ads say that ads help us make informed choices as consumers by introducing good quality products. On the other hand, critics sometimes accuse companies of using ads to mislead us by making us believe that a certain product is better than it really is or that we will be happier if we buy it. -o`K/f} d  
The basic principle of advertising is fairly simple. By introducing a brand name to potential customers, and by association the product with the customers' needs, companies are able to influence the choices customers make. Dc$q0|N=z  
Customers see so many ads every day that advertisers must work hard to get their message across. For that reason, companies spend large amounts of money employing advertisers. The best chance to reach customers is to appeal to their emotions. Thus instead of selling them the product, the ads sometimes seem to be selling them what money cannot buy; love, happiness and success. -$0}rfX  
Ads help companies and customers in a variety of ways. It has been proven again and again that frequent advertising increases product sales. Since an increase in sales means an increase in production, the price may be reduced. Therefore advertising, instead of making a product more expensive, often makes it cheaper.  ^RT_Lky  
Advertisements also help consumers choose among all the available products. There are many things we need to take into consideration before we buy an expensive product, such as car or a computer, and ads can help us make the right decision. ZeU){CB  
Perhaps the most important function of advertising is to introduce new products. Truthful ads provide good information that helps customers to decide whether they want to need the advertised product. By explaining the features, functions and costs of a product or service, ads also allow customers to compare prices and quality before they actually go to the store. Armed with facts and figures, customers are better able to deal with the often powerful argument given by a salesman or saleswoman. vcp{Gf|^  
Not all ads are used to promote a product or to increase a company's profits. Many governments use ad campaigns to make people aware of social problem and government policies. v~T)g"_|  
Aid organisations often name a well-known person as their spokesman or spokeswoman in order to get their message across. For example, the United Nation selected the soccer star Ronaldo, pop singer Tetsuya Komuro and other famous people to represent the UN and make its programmes known to the public. By using the techniques developed by the advertising industry, governments and other non-profit organizations can spread knowledge, change attitudes and improve society. KB :JVK^<  
There are some ads that are not helpful. These "bad ads" use illegal ways to mislead consumers. It is no always easy to spot a bad ad, but there are a few things we can look out for. First of all, we should always keep an eye out for "hidden information". Some ads hide important information by using small print or colours. Other ads mislead us by showing pictures that are only partly true or have been changed to look better. <jF&+[*iT  
A similar trick is used in so-called "bait-and-switch" ads, that is the customer is shown one product (the bait) and then given another. HR8YPU5  
There is no clear evidence to show just how well ads work, but they are important to both companies and consumers. Good advertisements make it possible for companies to introduce new products and increase sales. If the ads provide accurate information, they also help the average consumer to find the right product at the best price. ex1!7A!}g  
Because ads are powerful and some companies try to mislead us, we must be careful when we read ads. If we cannot distinguish between fiction and facts, we will become easy targets for ad makers. If, on the other hand, we learn to analyse ads, we may be able to protect ourselves from false advertisements and make good choices.

WORDS THAT SELL nAl \9#M  
Talk is cheap, but in the world of advertising, the right word at the right time can make millions. The language used in ads differs from ordinary language. Ad-makers choose words and brand names very carefully in order to create a positive image of the product they are promoting. A good ad often uses words to which people attach positive meanings. <Z3C&BM  
Choosing the name for a product is of course extremely important. Company or product names can have different functions: they can tell the consumer about the advantages of the product or company. A battery might be given a name that includes the words long or last to tell customers that it lasts for a long time. If a company chooses a funny or unusual name, customers will remember the name better. gWa0x-  
Some companies prefer a well-known word, while others choose names from old stories or legends. There are also companies that invent new words for their brand or product names. 1v.#ndk  
A product will also sell better if it is promoted with a slogan. One of the most famous and successful slogans is "Just do It!" And there are many others. For example, "the choice of the new generation", or "Coke Is It". A good slogan should be "catchy", or easy to remember, and should convey a message or idea that will make consumers form a positive image of the company and product. /*Q3=Dse]  
People read advertisements partly for information and partly because they are interesting. Today's advertisements often start with a question, or a puzzle, with the purpose of attracting the reader's attention. Of course, most advertisements contain information, but it is usually presented in an interesting and funny way. Humour is very important. S|k@D2k=  
Sometimes advertisements tell a story, or the story many be continued over a series of advertisements. However, there is a danger in this. It is possible that the reader or viewer will remember the advertisement but not the name of the product. There are other dangers. If you are selling your product in a foreign market, you must check that the translation is correct. ,e;,+w=~E  
A company that sold hair cream wanted to say "X puts life into dry hair." They took some photographs of a beautiful actress, and the advertisements appeared on large boards by the side of the road. Nobody bought the product, however, because when translated it meant "X puts living things into dry hair." W$SV+q(rT  
In the 1960s, a British car company which made very expensive cars was about to sell its latest car in Germany. However, the company had to change the name of the car at the last moment. A German speaker at the factory pointed out to the sales manager that the British name of the car mean "animal waste" in German.  ArAe=m!u  
Some of the most powerful words that sell are those that refer to the cost. Stores promise us discounts and tell us that they are the "biggest bargains" and "the lowest prices". 1R~$m  
Sometimes, the promises do not make sense. qg`ae  
We should think twice when we are offered a "free gift" or an "added bonus". And, of course, the best-seller is that simple, magical word that seems to pull us into store even if we really do not need to buy anything: "SALE!"

Part 1 |g^YD;9s.  
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H: So, how much money have we got to spend? ';Nc;9  
B: Seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds. Jenny, what do you suggest? U9b[t  
J: I suggest that we use mainly use TV, cinema, and print, magazines and newspapers. ">1wPq&  
B: I see. Can you give us your reasons? ((`{-y\K  
J: Sure. First, our product looks good. So it would be a waste of money to use radio. Second, our product moves well, and it moves fast. So I want people to see it on the roads in our ads, going through the hills, that kind of thing. :KX*j$5U  
B: What about advertising boards? YB7A5  
J: No. I prefer magazines and newspapers to boards, and we haven't got the money to do all three. So people will see the ad on TV and in the cinema. Then they'll be able to read about it when they're sitting down, reading their newspapers and magazines. 86-Rm  
H: I get the idea. Then customers can read the detailed product information and check the prices. (VN'1a (  
J: Exactly. Z'k?lkB2i  
H: So no advertising boards. When do you want the advertising to start, Brian? leNX5 sX  
B: May the 1st. That gives us three months to run to August 1st when most people like to buy their new cars. G5t7KI  
J: I see. So we're talking about three months. And have you thought of a headline? >@bU8}rT  
H: What about this one: the new Century 505 - the car you always promised yourself?

Part 2 UQh.o  
Four people in an advertising firm are discussing a future advertising programme. ivl %%nY'  
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A: OK. Our plan is to produce an advertisement for this computer which is made by one of China's biggest computer producers, FFQ Computer Corporation. Any ideas? GOA dhh-  
B: I think it would be a good idea to have comments from people who are using it. They can express their satisfaction with the product. 6vNn;-gg.  
C: Well, maybe that's not such a good idea. Do you think managers want to read what users think about a new piece of office equipment? ~x'8T!M{  
D: I agree with Bob. I think we should have a picture of the computer and give a description of the product. @]
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B: I'm afraid I can't agree with you. That's a good way of giving information, but it's not a good way of persuading people. For another thing, one computer looks very like another. People aren't going to remember the name of the product. dT7fyn  
A: So what exactly are you suggesting? yc7b%T*Y  
B: I suggest that we ask users of this machine what they think about it. We can photograph them using it too. Then we can put their comments at the top of the advertisement in big print. We can bring in some humour too. People enjoy reading humorous ads. ) aMiT  
D: The disadvantage with carrying out interviews is that it may take a long time. z0ufLxq  
B: No problem, we can do some telephone and email interviews with our users. }eZ\~2  
C: How can we find out who are using these computers? V!]|u ^4I  
A: Easy. I'll ask the company for a list of recent customers.